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What is Public Administration?

Public administration is the machinery, as well as the integral process, through which the government perform its activities ( Kettl, D. 2002)

Public administration is broadly described as the development, implementation and study of government policy public employees work to improve equality, justice, security, efficiency and effectiveness in service delivery.( Brudney, 1998).

Classic scholars including Plato, Aristotle and Machiavelli are the foundation of subsequent generations of public administration emphasizing the moral and political human nature as well as the organization of the governing bodies. In the United States, Woodrow Wilson who would later became a president considered as the father of public administration in the United States defined the object of administrative study to discover first, what government can properly and successfully do, and, secondly, how it can do these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money of energy.

Evolution of public administration

Reforming public management has been an on-going process in many countries of the developed and developing region for one to two decades. The impulse for such reforms came as a result of combination of a number of factors. These included: market determination; public dissatisfaction with service delivery; growing demand for citizen participation in decision making; and disillusion with the standard of public sector resource management (Njunwa, M.H.M. 2005).. Other concerns like cost effectiveness, efficiency, accountability, focus on results, contestability of advice and services, better performance management and decentralization of service delivery also contributed significantly to create pressure for change and reform.

During the last decade a number of significant reforms have been implemented in a number of

countries in the Africa particularly Tanzania. Many governments in Africa were facing serious crises, but evidence shows that even governments in developed countries were searching for renewal of their governments as they were perceived to be getting irrelevant to the citizens need and to their expectations. These reform differ in terms of nature and scope. But both  intended to bring about a marked change in governance in these countries. It will not be possible to discuss here in any great length all the reforms in these countries. Rather the focus below is on some significant reforms in Tanzania that have implications in public administration

Like many African countries, Tanzania public administration   has a long and distinguished history due to the influences of different management  practices of the changing  world (Farazmand, A., 1999) : traditional public administration; public management, new public management; and responsive governance and  recent paradigm of Reinventing Government . In some measure, they are chronological, yet they overlap in both historical time and substance.

At the time of independence, the emerging nation of Tanganyika inherited a public service designed to serve its colonial interest. The size of government was then small, with a focus on providing services to the colonial population, Following the Arusha Declaration of 1967 through to the late 1980s, Tanzania saw a dramatic expansion in the role of the state in all areas of the economy therefore, entailed the building of institutional and human resource capacity to respond to the needs of the new nation.

By the early 1990s, in responding to political, economical and social pressure, public sector in Tanzania shift towards a free-market economy, as part of global economy phenomena, where the private sector was to serve as the engine of growth, needed to be better reflected in the structure and size of the nation’s public service (Therkildsen2000). This created a need to introduce some reforms within a public sector in favor of reducing the role of state and increase reliance on market.

As part of wider cross cutting public reforms agenda the government introduced the core public sector reforms which  have focused largely on reorganizing service delivery mechanisms within Government, improving systems and processes, and building the human capacity of the Public Service. Examples include the following programmes ;civil service reform program(CSRP), the Public Service Reform Programme(PSRP),the Local Government Reform Programme (LGRP),Public Finance Management Reform Programme (PFMRP),the Legal Sector Reform Programme (LSRP) the National Anti-Corruption Strategy and Action Plan( NACSAP)and Business Environment Strengthening Tanzania (BEST)

GOALS OF TANZANIA GORVERMENT

The National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP), or what is more commonly referred to by the Kiswahili acronym MKUKUTA, has been in effect since July 2005. It is a key document setting out a broad framework and strategy for poverty reduction and economic growth.

National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP), has divided into  three clusters.which are:

(1) Growth and reduction of income poverty

(2) Improvement of quality of life and social wellbeing and

(3) Good governance and accountability

Cluster 1 in the MKUKUTA  is ‘Growth and Reduction of Income Poverty’. Income poverty is defined as “when people live on less than one US dollar a day. This means that they cannot afford enough food or medicine and they will have poor clothes and houses” (Tanzania without poverty – Phase two 2005: 5). The broad outcome of this cluster is phrased in the following way: ‘Broad-based and equitable growth is achieved and sustained’. Accompanying this broad outcome, six goals are presented: 1) Ensuring sound economic management; 2) Promoting sustainable and broad-based growth; 3) Improving food availability and accessibility;

4) Reducing income poverty of both men and women in rural areas; 5) Reducing income poverty of both men and women in urban areas; 6) Provision of reliable and affordable energy to consumers. It would make this report far too extensive if I were to go into detail on all the goals and activities. I will therefore confine my comments to some of the most important issues in this cluster and try to compare them with the content of the Manifesto.

Cluster II has two broad outcomes: 1) Improved quality of life and social well-being, with a

Particular focus on the poorest and most vulnerable groups; 2) Reduced inequalities in outcomes (education, survival, health, for example) across geographic, income, age, gender and other groups. Within these outcomes five goals are identified: 1) To ensure equitable access to quality primary and secondary education for boys and girls, universal literacy among men and women, and expansion of higher technical and vocational education; 2) To improve the survival, health and well-being of all children and women and of specially vulnerable groups; 3) To ensure access to clean, affordable and safe water, sanitation, decent shelter and a safe and sustainable environment – and thereby reduce vulnerability from environmental risk;

4) To ensure adequate social protection and provision of basic needs and services for the

vulnerable and needy; 5) To ensure effective systems to permit universal access to quality and affordable public services. education, health, access to clean and safe water and outcomes, goals and activities with the general aim of reducing inequality.

Cluster 3 of the MKUKUTA defines four broad outcomes: 1) Good governance and the rule of law; 2) Accountability of leaders and public servants; 3) Democracy and political and social tolerance; 4) Peace, political stability, national unity and social cohesion. This third cluster covers a wide range of issues. It deals with economic and political structures and processes, systems of management broadly defined, security, tolerance and inclusion as well as participation in decision making. Democratic development, human rights and the rule of law are additional issues under this cluster. It also has to do with effective, transparent and accountable use of public resources. To achieve the desired outcomes under this Cluster several ongoing reform programmes need to be sustained. Some of these are: the Public Service Reform Programme (PSRP), the Local Government Reform Programme (LGRP) and the Legal Sector Reform Programme (LSRP).

Within these four broad outcomes seven goals are set: 1) To ensure that structures and systems of governance as well as the rule of law are democratic, participatory, representative, accountable and inclusive; 2) To ensure equitable allocations of public resources – with corruption effectively addressed; 3) To put in place an effective public service framework as a foundation for service delivery improvements and poverty reduction; 4) To ensure that the rights of the poor and vulnerable groups are protected and promoted in the justice system; 5) To reduce political and social exclusion and intolerance; 6) To improve personal and material security, reduce crime and eliminate sexual abuse and domestic violence; 7) To enhance and promote national cultural identities. As mentioned in the introduction, ‘good governance and accountability’

(As according to National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP)

after analyzing different documents such as national strategy for development ,Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 2015 and the Vision 2025 and  CCM election manifesto 2005 you can identify that all these aimed at archiving the same goals with different ways because they have only differ in term of form and scope and they are both aligned with National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP), MKUKUTA MKUZA of Zanzibar

Demand of the public administration of Tanzania based on 0bjectives /goals of  public sector reform s in Tanzania (CSRP PSRP1 PSRP II) .CSRP Established under the umbrella of  achieving a smaller, affordable, well-compensated efficient and effectively performing civil service while PSRP stated objective was to  enable the Public Service to deliver efficiently and effectively the Government’s economic and social programmes on a continuous and sustainable basis.

Both CSRP and PSRP aimed at

a)      To change the mindset of the public service towards greater orientation for performance results and accountability. The theme of the program is ‘Enhancing Performances Results and Accountability in the Public Service’.

b)      Ensure the delivery of quality public services within priority sectors conforms to public expectations for value, satisfaction, and relevance by the end of 2011

c)      Improvement in the policy-making, processes and regulatory capacity of MDAs and Local Government Authorities (LGAs) that will contribute to a more predictable and well regulated environment for service delivery institutions and for private sector development.

d)     Greater access to information and responsiveness to the demands of stakeholders as measured by feedback on client service charters that contributes to greater transparency and accountability of government and improved governance.

e)      Efficient delivery of internal operational and administrative services MDAs; and Improved management of information and records that supports service delivery

f)       Create and Maintain a Quality, Diverse Workforce which are capable to respond to the extensive and softcated needs of the people this done through Improvement in management of public servants, measured by the percentage of staff targets realized in MD

g)      Create an organizational culture to support learning and growth to the public. The strategic emphasis  is to transform the culture of public service delivery to that of demanding improved performance, with an emphasis on results and greater accountability

h)      Develop systems and partnership by  Reduced bureaucracy and red tape in the delivery of services by developing Systems and structures in place to enhance access and efficiency of service delivery;

i)        Leadership Development through Building management capacity to develop staff.

CHALLENGES

Poverty and inequality remains a critical concern for Tanzania, with income levels still amongst the lowest in Africa. Between 1992 and 2001, the proportion of people living below the national poverty line fell slightly from 39 percent to 36 percent, while the number of people living below the international “dollar a day” poverty line was 58 percent. Strong sustained growth since 1995, of almost 6 percent per annum, have not yet been captured in the poverty estimates. While poverty today is likely below 2001 levels, the lack of data is a problem for policy making (Bourgon, J. 2008) .

Despite the immense advancements in all spheres of human activity, the increased global wealth, and the opportunities unleashed by globalization, the world today still faces great challenges. These in turn affect public administration in a number of ways. The State and its institutions are, in fact, increasingly subject to pressure both from the domestic and international arena. New challenges and old threats suggest that the State, especially in developing countries, needs to be strengthened and to operate differently from the past. The challenges that are affecting how the State operates and that call for major innovations in public administration

Environmental degradation poses significant challenges to public administrations world-wide. Economic liberalization and the lifting of barriers to trade and commerce in many countries around the world has provided the corporate sector with greater opportunities for investment and profit, as well as higher access to new markets, especially in the developing countries. The opening up of “new frontiers” has, however, also accelerated the depletion of natural resources and has produced higher levels of industrial pollution. Although, as is well known, environmental degradation is not a consequence of globalization per se, greater access to and exploitation of previously protected areas is creating further risks for the environment. Worldwide unsustainable consumption

The increase in migration of workers, especially from developing countries to the developed world, is posing serious challenges to public administration systems around the globe. Although migration is by no means a new phenomenon and is actually less extensive than in the past, it should not be underestimated and deserves to be addressed from a developmental approach. States must become more attuned to these new realities and find incentives to retain skilled workers within their borders, while also ensuring that social networks are in place to support workers who suffer sudden unemployment. (Bourgon, J. 2008)

Bridging the digital divide: Information technology opens new vistas for humankind. IT promises to improve our study, work and leisure. IT offers possibilities to broaden and accelerate the global integration of information networks , Currently, however, many developing countries and countries with economies in transition like ours are only passively integrated, . The unequal access to IT is creating what is known as the digital divide generally between rich and poor countries and also within countries. Technological penetration is still very low in Tanzania if compared to the developed world.  Most enterprises in developing  countries have neither the capacity nor the means to be active players in the globalization process.  Challenge based on how to close the digital gap and create the opportunities for a wider participation of all people in the information age

The unsatisfied number of qualified public administrators is another major challenge to be faced by our countries. The problem got compounded by a need for these countries to assert their national sovereignty by Africanizing the services, recent research findings clearly demonstrate that investment in effective human resources management can make a decisive contribution to improving public sector performance. Empirical studies suggest that investment in human capital in the public sector is more likely to enhance the effectiveness of government than downsizing. Furthermore, in a competitive labor environment, characterized by changing demographics and rapid turnover, governments will increasingly have to develop effective strategies to recruit and retain a fair share of the best talent

Another challenge facing public administration is on how to improve efficiency, productivity,  at  the same time to ensure quality and service, this is a bid challenges to many government now days because the increase of productivity tend to decrease the quality for example is the secondary school in Tanzania as the government struggle to increase the number of student the quality of education offered to become low as the number increases.

The human rights situation remains unsatisfactory. The respect for the freedom of speech and association is not fully respected. The police use assault against suspected criminals and torture and infringements exist in detention and prisons. Gender based violence is a continuing problem and female genital mutilation is still practiced in some parts of the country. The Tanzanian society played a significant role in violating some fundamental rights by clinging to abusive practices such as forced marriages to girls, widow inheritance and killing through mob violence.

Corruption is still widespread, in spite of the national anti-corruption policies and instruments. Tanzania maintained its position in Transparency International Corruption Index between 2004 and 2005 (ranked as 96), despite Government’s apparent commitment to mitigate if not eradicate it, as demonstrated by recent increases in official support for the apex anti-corruption agency, the Prevention of Corruption Bureau. This condition undermines the national poverty reduction strategies and economic progress generally and retards the growth of democratic values of openness and accountability in the use of public resources. Although the Kikwete Administration appears to re-energize the anti-corruption agenda with fresh exhortations, the agenda requires a persistent and focused national attention to succeed.

Labour migration, The departure of a skilled migrant signifies a loss of investment in previous education and training for the country of origin as well as a loss of skills and experience that would otherwise provide future contributions to development, including future tax payments. In developing countries, it is important that this phenomenon be counterbalanced by “earn, learn and return” strategies to take advantage of the enhanced skills and experience of the expatriate population, with programmes to facilitate remittances and encourage migrants to return. In critical employment sectors, such as health and education, governments also need to adopt specific programmes and incentives to stem the tide.

HIV/AIDS. In some countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, HIV/AIDS Tanzania in particular is having a staggering impact on the performance of governments. The management of HIV/AIDS issues in the work place presents many dilemmas. Mortality is only one aspect of the problem to be managed. Given that the disease normally affects younger adults and those in the most economically productive phases of their lives, HIV/AIDS has the potential to reduce the  pool of prospective employees and economic productivity in many countries. in Tanzania public service it is estimated 13% employees are affected by the disease this create a big challenges to the Governments

Promoting public service integrity, ethics and professionalism is another challenge , quality service is not simply a matter of drawing boxes and moving employees from one to another, or even of exposing them to new management “skills” and techniques. Enhancing the quality and standard of service is also about attitude change – that is if “behavior modification” sounds too frighteningly Orwellian. The public, especially the poor, would in all probability welcome an era in which they could receive the services to which they are entitled without having to cringe before, bribe, or exchange favors with, public officials. There is at any rate a more serious reason for looking forward to zero-tolerance of corruption. (Caiden, G. E., 1994)

Way forward

A capable and democratic state is a prerequisite for success in overcoming the three broad

challenges discussed above. There is a great deal of empirical evidence in the economics

literature showing an important causal effect of good governance on economic outcomes and that Africa’s relatively weak performance in the 1990s (figure 3) on many governance indicators was an additional factor explaining the continent’s weak economic outcomes15.

For the state to discharge its legitimate functions, for civil society to flourish, and for the

private sector to function properly, a system of good governance is required that allows all

stakeholders in these sectors to play their respective roles and fulfill their respective functions.

Good governance is also required to ensure that the country’s economic and social priorities are based on the needs of society as a whole, and that broad based stakeholder participation is facilitated in the economic and political realms of the country. Good governance calls for the ability of a state to anticipate changes to its well-being, provide core services to its people and then augment these services, act as catalyst of change for the good, and guide the various forces in society towards harmony. “The very capable states in the word demonstrate how these tasks are artfully carried out”( O.Connell, Brian 1996). Building capable states as a means of promoting good governance is thus a key requirement for effectively confronting and overcoming Africa’s 21st century challenges.

Also flexible ,adoptable, learnable and  forecasting government would help because the state institution will be in a position to learn both  internal and external and if possible to change accordingly as  situation requires. This will minimize some unnecessary risk the government facing

Conclusion

The need to serve citizens better has become one of the major preoccupations of public

Administration today and the government can no longer shoulder that responsibility alone. Social and human development needs have become complex and diverse and to address these complex and diverse needs some form of cooperative effort is required. Various players need to be brought into the public service delivery process to be able to contribute effectively to social and human development needs

Any ideas?

MANAGING GLOBAL ECONOMIC CHALLENGES

INTRODUCTION:

The modern day global economy is a highly interconnected one. With the increased connectivity the challenges before the global economy has achieved an altogether new dimension. On one hand is the positive impact of instant access to the global information network. On the other hand, market volatility is using the economic inter linkage channels to spread like wildfire.

            The International Monetary Fund revised down the estimated world growth rate for 2008. This was a fall out of the US sub prime crisis. At present economies through out the world are facing stock market volatility and rising unemployment figures as an after effect of the US crisis.

            As per estimates, around one billion people worldwide survive on less than a dollar per day. Over one billion do not have access to clean water. Basic sanitation facilities are absent for around 2.4 billion people. Around 5 million children worldwide die from starvation.

CHALLENGES BEFORE THE GLOBAL ECONOMY:

To sum up, the challenges before the global economy are by no means simple. Timely intervention in the form of appropriate policies and fiscal help from the world bodies are needed to tide over the crisis. No less important is the political will needed for the seamless implementation of the policies.

1.Poverty

 Sub-Saharan Africa has been witness to the most severe form of poverty. Nearly 50% of the population survives on less than $1-a-day. Malnutrition, internal conflicts, dreadful diseases like AIDS and improper governmental measures are the main reasons behind this extreme poverty.

As far as poverty goes, it is the Southeast Asia that comes next to sub-Saharan Africa. Around 85% of the total population of the Southeast Asia survives on below $2-a-day.

 Despite 50% of population living under $2-a-day, the number of poor people in Eastern Asia and Pacific has declined significantly in recent past. It is mainly due to the social and economic progress achieved by China over the passage of time.

When it comes to Latin America, inequality in income distribution resulting from poverty is a matter of great concern.
Some 300 million of India’s people still live in abject poverty, and another 300 million hover precariously above the poverty line.  One challenge is to reach the poor with programs and policies that work

2. Inflation

Considering the failure of US sub prime market and the subsequent recession in US economy, controlling the increasing rate of inflation is the greatest challenge that the world is confronting for some time now. The Indian and Chinese governments are taking care of the inflationary situations very seriously. In Europe, interest rates have been maintained at higher side to keep inflation under control. Fiscal policy measures like reducing government expenditure and increasing rate of taxation can also be used to check inflation. Attempts are on to bring about regulatory changes to face the challenge of inflation.

3. Inequality

Globalization is considered by many to be the main cause behind the perpetration of an increased income inequality in wide areas of the globe. However, an increased trade globalization has only worked towards the eradication of this inequality. The need of the hour is policies, which will ensure that the proceeds from technological innovation and globalization are distributed among the cross section of a country’s population. Developing countries are primarily agriculture based and they can promote agricultural exports for reaping the benefits of trade liberalization.

4. Climate change

Environmentalists all over the world are trying their best to protect the planet from the adverse effects of climate change. The European Union has played a crucial role in these movements. The primary objective of the Convention has been to urge the developed nations to check the emission of greenhouse gas. The target regarding greenhouse gas emission that has been set in Kyoto Protocol needs to be achieved within the period of 2008-2012.
The European Climate Change Program or ECCP in another major initiative towards environment protection. However, to control the emission of greenhouse gas it is necessary to create general awareness among the common people. Substantial change in energy system, use of environment-friendly technologies in production, alternative energy efficient fuels, minimum use of fossil fuels and change in the pattern of living are the key factors that can bring about positive changes in environment.

5. Rising food prices

 The urban poor will be affected the most due to this rising food prices. In most of the sub Saharan country, the common trend is that the farmers leave their land and head to other lines of production in the urban areas.
According to the World Food Program, the countries that are most affected are Eritrea, Gambia, Togo, Cameroon, Niger, Senegal, Zimbabwe, Haiti, Myanmar, Yemen, Cuba etc.

6.Trade”- key to lower food prices

Opening up of economy or trade liberalization can help to reduce food prices. Different countries have adopted different measures of trade in order to deal with the escalating food prices. Saudi Arabia has resorted to import tax cuts on wheat from 25% to zero. Tariff is also decreased for dairy products, vegetable oil and poultry. India slashed its tariffs on maize and edible oils. Export of rice was also stopped leaving out the high value basmati. For the last 2-3years India has to fill the demand supply mismatch in food through imports. There are high exporting countries like Ukraine, which are also imposing export restrictions on its food products.

7. Agflation in the global economy:

 Structural changes within an economy are an important reason behind Agflation. There is a rise in per capita income in the populated countries like India and China. Consumption of food grains as feedstock has also increased.  According to the International Grain Council, the world grain production would reach 1660m tones in 2008, which exceeds the previous year by 90m tones. Even then demand is likely to outdo supply. Inflation in the agricultural sector can be attributed mostly to crops like coffee, corn, wheat, and soybeans, sugar, cocoa and meat and poultry products.

8. Trend in demand for and supply of food grains:

It is estimated that the world population will rise by 800 million per decade till 2025. The production of food grains is expected to rise to 2.67 billion by 2025 so as match the demand level. It is also estimated that there will be a regional mismatch in the demand of food grains across different regions.

9. Role of internaitional organisations: 

The objective of international organization is to study, collect and propagate information, setting up of laws that are internationally accepted. The international organizations also help in cooperation between different countries by setting up negotiation deals between them. The international Organizations also help in technical assistance.
The International Organizations play an important role in collecting statistical information, analyzing the trends in the variables, making a comparative study and disseminate the information to all other countries.
There are some international organizations that perform certain supervisory functions.  The function of the international organizations is setting up multilateral or bilateral agreements between countries.
Another function, that has assumed importance in the recent times, is lending out technical cooperation to the member countries.  Amongst all the roles and activities of the international organizations, the most important is negotiating and setting up multilateral agreements. Minimizing the transaction costs can strengthen the cooperation between different countries.

10. Public health care and primary education: 

The other challenge is to make public service providers, and the entire state apparatus, much more responsive and accountable to all citizens, especially the poor. Today, basic public services are deteriorating. These include such frontline services as public health care and primary education. And, the poor are the most affected

Response to the Challenges of the 21st Century:

poverty reduction – providing opportunities for a better life for the poor. This challenge is particularly acute in Asia which is home to two-thirds of the world’s poor Ongoing globalization – Globalization opens up opportunities for developing countries, facilitating wider and faster access to capital, technologies, know-how and markets. On the other hand, globalization also comes with associated risks. Globalization may bring in financial volatility, and even economic and social disruptions. Asian countries should not, however, turn their backs to globalization. Instead, they should try to prepare themselves to ease the integration into the global market. Promotion of regional cooperation – Regional cooperation beyond national boundaries contributes to realizing economies of scale, enhancing complementarity among neighboring countries, and ensuring regional peace and stability.

Conclusion:

India’s GDP growth has soared from 5-6% a few years ago to 9% today. If this growth is sustained, as the 11th Plan hopes to do, average living standards will rise and poverty will be reduced.  India will become a middle-income country in three years time instead of six, crossing the Bank’s current threshold of $875 per capita income to do so. Its per capita income will double in the next seven years, instead of ten. In fact, by 2025, India’s average per capita income could well surpass Thailand’s and reach where Malaysia is today.  This will amount to creating fifty East Asian “miracles” within two decades. For a young Indian entering the work force today, this will be about the time she takes to reach her peak productive years.

Submitted By,

Ms. G.P.Divya

&

Ms. S.Padmavathi

Lecturers (M.B.A)

SSM Academy of Textile Management, Erode.

 

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Introduction

There is growing concern about agricultural activities leading to environmental degradation and health risks associated with intensively produced foodstuffs. As a result interest in organic agriculture is increasing. This growing interest in sustainable and organic natural resource management and healthy eating, coupled with the increasing number of resource-poor farmers who cannot afford agrichemicals, has led to the potential for organic farming in addressing the issue of sustainable food production and livelihoods of resource-poor people in sub-Saharan Africa.

Low in-put agriculture applies to systems that rely less on external, purchased inputs and more on internal resources. However, low-inout agriculture technolgy (LIAT) has conveyed a negative impression in various agriculture circles and this is cited as a major barrier to wider adoption of low-input agriculture technologies (LIATs) in Malawi and sub-Saharan Africa as a whole.

Increasingly, it has been recognized that environmental deterioration in Africa is a central factor holding back agriculture. The disappearance of forest areas accelerates land degradation. Even on gently sloping cropland, topsoil losses have been reported to range from 25 tonnes to 250 tonnes per hectare, across the region. One study has estimated that soil degradation and erosion in Africa reduces the productivity of land about 1 per cent a year (Daberkow and Reichederfer, 1988).

According to World Bank figures (1982), some 2.9 million hectares of forest were lost each year in sub-Saharan Africa during the 1980s, mainly due to clearing by farmers and loggers. The Soil Reference and Information Centre (2007) in the Netherlands estimates that 321 million hectares of African land are moderately to extremely degraded. Since 1950, the amount of water available per person in Africa has fallen by more than half, and may plummet further to half its current level within the next 25 years.

While African governments have become more aware of the relationship between the environment and agricultural productivity, much of the impetus for concrete and more integrated action has come from the grassroots. Confronted with deteriorating environmental conditions, villagers across the continent, often with support from non-governmental organizations (NGOs), have taken the initiative to set up woodlots, terrace hillsides, conserve threatened water sources and adopt more environmentally sustainable farming methods.

Malawi Profile

Malawi is a landlocked country about 117,068 km2, with a population of about 12 million people. It is situated in southeastern Africa, where the Great Rift Valley traverses the country from north to south. In this deep trough lies Lake Malawi, the third-largest lake in Africa, comprising about 20% of Malawi’s land area. The Shire River flows from the south end of the lake and joins the Zambezi River 400 kilometers farther south in Mozambique. East and west of the Rift Valley, the land forms high plateaus, generally between 900 and 1,200 meters above sea level.

Malawi is a densely populated country with an economy heavily dependent on agriculture. The country has few exploitable mineral resources. Its two most important export crops are tobacco and tea. Traditionally Malawi has been self-sufficient in its staple food, maize, and during the 1980s exported substantial quantities to its drought-stricken neighbors. Agriculture represents 38.6% of the GDP, accounts for over 80% of the labour force, and represents about 80% of all exports. Nearly 90% of the population engages in subsistence farming. Smallholder farmers produce a variety of crops, including maize, beans, rice, cassava, tobacco, and groundnuts (peanuts). The agricultural sector contributes about 63.7% of total income for the rural population, 65% of manufacturing sector’s raw materials, and approximately 87% of total employment. Financial wealth is generally concentrated in the hands of a small elite.

Many Malawian subsistence farmers have unconsciously practiced LIATs since time immemorial until the advent of advanced technology and conventional farming systems aimed at producing more to food the ever-increasing population. Conventional farming system has by and by overtaken traditional low-input agriculture. However, LIATs system of farming is not receiving much attention for various reasons. There is thus need to revisit the system and identify the needs and gaps that impede adoption of LIAT system of farming. The primary objective of the research was to identify the challenges of adoption of organic agriculture that exist in the development of LIATs in Malawi and to recommend the formulation of policies that will improve sustainability in agriculture.

Definitions

Organic farming

There are varied definitions of organic farming but the basic principles of this type of farming apply to all. The principles of organic farming as expressed in the standards document of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) are:

• To produce food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity

• To work with natural systems rather seeking to dominate them

• To encourage and enhance biological cycles within the farming system, involving microorganisms, soil flora and fauna, plants and animals

• To maintain and increase the long-term fertility of soils

• To use as far as possible renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems

• To avoid all forms of pollution that may result from agricultural activities

• To maintain the genetic diversity of the agricultural system and its surroundings

• To allow agricultural producers an adequate return and satisfaction from their work including a safe working environment

These principles provide the basis for day-to-day farming practice. They directly give rise to the techniques of organic farming, such as composting, the use of rotations, the avoidance of soluble fertilizers, the prohibition of intensive livestock operations, the avoidance of antibiotics and hormone stimulants, the use of mechanical methods of weed control, etc.

Organic farming has also been defined as “a farming system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed additives”. To the maximum extent possible, organic farming systems rely on crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, and aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other pests.

The definitions and principles of organic farming underlie the notion of low input agriculture, which emphasizes use of internal inputs and not external inputs. Internal inputs are generally much cheaper and affordable compared to external inputs.

Low In-put Agriculture Technology (LIAT)

This is a production activity that uses synthetic fertilizers or pesticides below rates commonly recommended. It does not mean elimination of these materials or inputs. Yields are maintained through greater emphasis on cultural practices, integrated pest management (IPM), and utilization of on-farm resources and management. LIAT has also been termed “low input and sustainable agriculture, LISA)” by other schools of agriculture. The term in both cases applies to those systems that rely less on external, purchased inputs and more on internal resources, while sustaining the natural resources.

Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable agriculture is an important element of the overall effort to make human activities compatible with the demands of the earth’s eco-system. Thus, an understanding of the different approaches to ecological agriculture is necessary if we want to utilise the planet’s resources wisely.

While sustainable agriculture is based on long-term goals and not a specific set of farming practices, it is usually accompanied by a reduction of purchased inputs in favor of managing on-farm resources. A good example is reliance on biologically-fixed nitrogen from legumes as versus manufactured nitrogen fertilizers. Low-input agriculture is one of several alternative farming systems whose methods are adaptable to sustainable agriculture.

Methodology

The research on organic farming and LIAT was done using interviews of key-informants from the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security and those who practice organic farming as a strategy of LIAT. Four visits to fifteen different key-informants were made. The farmers (key-informants) were purposefully selected on the merit of known cases of LIA and organic farming in Malawi. An interview questionnaire was administered at each visit to solicit information related to the research questions “what are the challenges of adoption of organic farming faced by farmers in Malawi?” and “what LIATs are currently practiced in Malawi?” Internet search was also used to get more literature on organic farming and LIAT in sub-Sahara Africa and Malawi. The search words used were low-input agricultute, organic farming, Malawi, sub-Sahara Africa, subsistence agriculture.

Results

Views of Malawi Organic Growers Association (MOGA)

Africa is the only continent in which food production has failed to keep up with the growth in population. In Malawi, where there is a shortage of the staple food, maize, hunger and malnutrition result in high infant mortality. Here, some farmers are experimenting with organic farming systems – which do not rely on man-made chemicals – and their techniques are being observed by farmer groups from other countries. The methods being used involve a combination of irrigation, companion planting, composting and soil conservation. Currently there are 2,400 smallholder farmers in fourteen farmer clubs that practice organic farming in Malawi. These are closely supervised by the Malawi Organic Growers Association (MOGA), whose objective is to promote organic farming on a national level so that it contributes to poverty reduction, food security and natural resources management through training of its members. The objective of MOGA will be achieved through the following activities;

• Promoting and protecting the interests of organic producers

• Selecting suitable crops and coordinating and monitoring production among members

• Setting rules for standardization and certification of organic products which are accepted nationally and internationally

• Assisting farmer members increase their production levels, crop diversification and food security

• Establishing contacts for marketing at national, regional and international levels

• Informing and training members in post-harvest processing to add value to products

MOGA has also established a demonstration and training centre for organic farming in Dzalanyama, Lilongwe. It is also promoting a project (permaculture) to protect ecosysytems where farmers used to cut down trees for shifting cultivation. Permaculture is largely promoted at one of the farmers who practice organic farming. His farm is called “Freedom Gardens” and it acts as a demonstration garden for other potential farmers who go to learn permaculture and other strategies of organic farming

Interview with Agriculture Expert (key-informant)

Experts from the MOGA gave their views on LIA and organic agriculture. The discussion with the researcher (RS) and Agriculture Expert (AE) went as follows;

RS. What are the advantages of turning to organic agriculture?

AE: It’s difficult to generalize, because examples of successful organic farming systems can be found in many different conditions. A major advantage of course is that it stops environmental degradation. Organic techniques are used to regenerate degraded areas. A second advantage is that, because of diversification, it offers farmers a much more secure income than when they rely on only one or two outputs. The consumption of byproducts improves the health of the farm family.

Thirdly, farmers maintain nutrient balances in the soil through locally available organic materials or recycled farm wastes. Soil nutritional status is thus better maintained in areas where access to synthetic inputs is limited or where they are too expensive.

Finally, health hazards posed by pesticides and herbicides fall are significantly reduced through organic farming.

RS: Exactly what is low-external-input agriculture; what are its principles?

AE: Low-external-input farming reduces as much as possible the use of external inputs like pesticides, herbicides and synthetic fertilizers and replaces them with internal inputs. The basic principle is that farming is seen as both agro- and ecosystem management. The farmer is managing a farm with coherent diversity. The important concepts are diversification of crops and animals, crop rotation, and organic matter cycles. Low-external-input agriculture does not prohibit synthetic inputs. It’s just that when the principles are applied, the need for synthetics disappears. Mixed cropping, green manuring, composting, use of local organic materials, reduced tillage and biodynamic preparations are also included. These things are little more than common sense. Developing these skills with the farmer is the biggest problem.

RS: How accepted is organic agriculture today?

AE: Organic farming isn’t exactly new. Many so-called traditional systems have worked for a long time without external inputs and chemicals – and are still working. The best proof that organic farming can work is that it has worked for a long time. This doesn’t mean it can’t be improved. It certainly has to be. But to improve it, it’s not necessary to use external inputs. There are other ways. Here I feel FAO is weak. The Organization feels that agricultural improvement means putting in chemicals. That’s a one-sided view. In some cases, that approach is viable, but in others it’s not. And I feel we have a role to play in developing traditional systems that are still low-external-input without chemicals. The means to do this involves the concept of nutrient balances including organic matter. Science today has a lot more information about what is happening with soil resources, and with these data many traditional systems can be improved without chemicals.

RS: Most districts in Malawi have very high population densities, how can low-external-input agriculture work in places like these?

AE: The fact is that very often systems are being degraded because the external inputs are not properly used. In organic farming, the need for external inputs is reduced through nutrient cycling and an input like labour. When other external inputs are necessary, they are organic materials. You can make biologically intensive production systems with above average yields, employing more people, using renewable, organic resources.

Admittedly, you have to balance population pressures to some degree as well. If you have degraded soils, you need to build up soil fertility, and when the fertility is there you have to try to maintain it. The problem at the moment is that people have tried for too long to use the soil as something to extract from, without trying to recycle things back into it.

The intensification of an agricultural system need not mean automatically putting in more chemicals. There are different ways – intercropping, green manuring, recycling of manure, and planting crops at different times, so as to maximize the potential of a piece of land. You can use cropping systems so that you have a diversity of crop species that complement each other. You can plant crop combinations that are less susceptible to pest attacks, so that you don’t have to keep relying on the pesticides used with monocultures.

RS. Can you give an overview of organic farming in Malawi?

AE. Compared to the population of Malawi (about 12 million people), those practicing organic farming in Malawi are few although there is an untapped demand for organic produce within and outside Malawi. The question is therefore how to go into this market by encouraging farmers to grow organic produce and forming links between potential farmers and the market. This is because marketing is the major impediment in the adoption of organic farming.

There are currently no standards for organic farming in the country which control the production of organic goods and there is also little awareness by the potential farmers of the benefits of organic farming.

RS. What are the low-input technologies that are currently used in Malawi?

AE. Many subsistence farmers in Malawi practice LIA albeit unconsciously. Due to unaffordability of external agriculture inputs farmers have always produced crops using on-farm inputs. Some of the strategies which are currently practiced by subsistence farmers are;

Irrigation

There are many different irrigation systems available to suit particular conditions. The one commonly used in Malawi is that which is traditionally used in many parts of the world – the irrigation water is carried to the fields along channels at the highest edge of the land and then along smaller channels made between the rows of plants. The water then soaks into the ground around the plants.

Companion Planting

A technique used by the farmers interviewed to help to control pests is to plant together different kinds of crop which help each other to survive and grow successfully. One of the reasons “companion plants” help each other is because one may deter the pest of its neighbour. For example, many pests avoid garlic so this can be used very effectively for companion planting with many crops.

In some cases, it is possible to use a plant which is more attractive to the pest than the crop plant itself. This idea is used in parts of Africa where farmers have found that milkweed planted among vegetables reduces the number of aphids on their crops – simply because the aphids prefer the milkweed to the vegetables.

In a similar way to companion planting, plants can be used to attract predators which will then eat the pests. Bushes and trees left around crop fields provide cover for many useful insects and birds. There are many plants whose flowers will attract predators and encourage them to lay more eggs, so increasing the number of insects which will attack the pests.

Composting

If the soil is to continue to provide the nourishment needed by crop plants, it must be kept in good condition and its natural nutrients replaced. Artificial, chemical fertizers can not do this because they only supply the short-term needs of the plant but do not feed the soil itself – so feeding of the next crop with more, expensive chemicals becomes necessary. By returning natural wastes and animal manure to the soil, as well as feeding the plants, the farmer can also improve the structure of the soil so that it retains water more effectively.

A very effective way of using vegetable wastes in this way is by making it into compost. This is made up of plant and animal residues which have been broken down by bacteria. Since this is a natural process, compost is very easy and inexpensive to make and is an effective and long-lasting way of improving soil and crop quality. If the process is well managed, the heat produced as the materials rot will often be enough to kill weed seeds and plant diseases.

Freedom Gardens uses the trench composting system but there are many different ways of making compost, all of which have been devised to suit various waste materials and the climates in which they are used. It is essential in all methods, however, to have a mixture of different kinds of materials – some young, living material and some older, dead material – so that the final product has a good balance of natural carbon and nitrogen which the crop plants will need.

Soil conservation

In order to retain the soil and avoid its loss through erosion by the wind or rain, it helps to grow plants which bind it together. Banana plants and vetiver grass are used for this at farmers’ gardens. Both of these have the additional benefit of providing either a food crop (banana) or a useful farm material in the form of mulch or animal feed (vetiver). Vetiver grass has been used very successfully in more than 50 countries for soil and water conservation. When fully established, a vetiver hedge will hold back surface water and trap any soil which is already being carried in the water.

Other methods of retaining soil include building terraces on steep slopes or using the gentler contours of the land to make flat areas in which rain water will rest until it has soaked naturally into the ground instead of running swiftly down the slope, carrying away the surface soil.

Intercropping

Due to land pressure farmers maximize production by planting two or more crops in a single field. This has the added advantage of reducing pests’ attack through reduced apparency of crops in a mixed stand. Intercropping with legumes is also beneficial in soil nitrogen enrichment by the nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root nodules of legume crops.

Agroforestry

This technology has great potential for soil fertility improvement, fruit tree domestication, sustainable tree seed systems and fodder for livestock production. Various leguminous tree species are used in agroforestry in Malawi. An example is Gliricidia sepium which is a preferred species of tree used in this technology. Its leaves are rich in nitrogen (N), sometimes up to 4% of the leaf biomass. A second quality is that the leaves provide organic matter, which help to improve the soil’s fertility and structure. Research at Makoka and application of the technology at nearby farms has shown that Gliricidia intercropping helps to rejuvenate the soil and to improve soil fertility, without the use of fertiliser.

Results indicate a definite increase in the maize crop yield using the simultaneous intercropping with Gliricidia. The farmer can obtain yields of up to 3-4 tonnes.

Permaculture

Permaculture is about designing ecological human habitats and food production systems. It is a land use and community building movement which strives for the harmonious integration of human dwellings, climate, annual and perennial plants, animals, soils, and water into stable, productive communities.

A central theme in permaculture is the design of ecological landscapes that produce food. Emphasis is placed on multi-use plants, cultural practices such as sheet mulching and trellising, and the integration of animals to recycle nutrients and graze weeds.

Permaculture can be applied to create productive ecosystems from the human- use standpoint or to help degraded ecosystems recover health and wildness. Permaculture can be applied in any ecosystem, no matter how degraded it may be.

Permaculture demonstration sites in Malawi have short-term objectives all of which are aimed at demonstrating to local subsistence farmers the achievements of organic agriculture. Some of the activities which are aimed at food production and income generating are;

• Vegetable growing for: money, food, chicken food, compost manure, fish ponds;

• Poultry farming for: money, food, manure for vegetables, manure for fish ponds;

• Fish farming for: money, food, fish pond manure for vegetable growing;

• Woodlot for: money, timber, fuel;

• Cattle farming for: food, money (to fatten and sell), manure for vegetables and fish ponds;

• Crops (intercropping), one ridge having maize, beans and potatoes which are companion plants. This method is used for a number of reasons:

o It increases long lasting fertility;

o It is a cheaper way of farming;

o It avoids soil and water chemical contamination.

Mulching

Water infiltration depends on there being sufficient porosity in the surface soil for rainfall to infiltrate, and in the subsoil and parent material (if shallow) for rainwater to percolate. The overriding approach should be to instill in society, and in farmers, extensionists and researchers in particular, the will to create and sustain soil conditions that encourage the infiltration of rainfall where it falls, and to counteract the causes of runoff. This implies that the porosity of the soil must be at least maintained, or increased.

Discussion

Low-input agriculture has emerged as an important issue as its popularity is motivated and supported by growing evidence of environmental and health risks from agrichemicals. The drop in commodity prices and farm equity value which occurred in 1981-87 has rekindled interest in developing cost-reducing technologies.

Sub-Saharan Africa agricultural production is currently challenged by many constraints faced by farmers across Africa. While some areas offer high productivity and have been intensively cultivated, others are plagued by low soil fertility, poor access to resources such as water, infrastructure and markets. Organic farming offers potential for smallholder farmers to improve their livelihood both through increased yield and access to markets. However, it is not as easy to embark on organic farming and new levels of organization and investment are required from government, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and households.

In Malawi over 90% of the population is engaged in Agricultural production which contributes 38.6% of the national gross domestic product, 80% of the export earnings and employs 80% of the labour force (A Guide to Agricultural Production and Natural Resources Management, 2005). According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, the main Agriculture sub-sectors include crops contributing about 80%, livestock contributing 13% and fisheries contributing about 6%. Over 95% of the farmers are smallholders with landholdings ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 acres. The majority of these smallholder farmers have rich indigenous knowledge that has sustained their livelihoods, food security as well as land productivity for hundreds of years with very little or no use of artificial fertilizers, pesticides and veterinary drugs. However they have limited capital.

Malawi is among the least users of artificial fertilizers and other agrichemicals in Africa with less than 14% or 1 kg of fertilizer per hectare compared to sub-Sahara average of 9kg/ha . Malawi therefore has a high comparative advantage for organic agriculture production in Africa.

Developments in the organic agriculture sub-sector have been driven by developments in international markets and trade. The world market for organic products is now estimated to be above 30 billion US dollars. Average global growth in demand and market of organic products is currently estimated to be 25% per year (Grolink 2004). The growing consumer interest triggered off rapid growth in international trade in organic products. The trading environment is witnessing changes due to;

• Increased consumer concerns for the health and safety.

• Increased consumer consciousness regarding the environment and social issues

of production and marketing.

The demand for Malawi Organic products in the international markets is growing, unfortunately is not yet marched by the supply. This is demonstrated by the number of business contracts being received by MOGA and the government.

Challenges

The Agriculture sector in general faces some challenges broadly categorized as lack of capital, low production and productivity, poor marketing system, human resource constraints and reliance on unpredictable weather conditions. The African farmer is further constrained by increase in migration to urban settlements and HIV and AIDs. However, the specific challenges in the Organic Sub-sector are:-

• Low investment in organic agriculture production leading to failure in fulfilling existing market opportunities/orders

• Limited research in organic agriculture.

• Limited extension services delivery in organic agriculture.

• High costs of international inspection and certification.

• Lack of internationally recognized local organic certification body.

• Inadequate documentation on organic agriculture.

• Demand outpaces supply

• Lack of organized smallholders groups to consistently raise volumes to meet market orders.

• Absence of an explicit policy on Organic Agriculture.

Conclusion

Several factors have come together in recent years which highlight the necessity for a fundamental review of agricultural activities. The traditional goal of maximizing output is being countered by widespread concern of the environment, and by the growing realization that finite natural resources need to be more carefully managed. Organic farming has a positive contribution to make as it is dependent upon maintaining ecological balance and developing biological processes to their maximum. The preservation of soil structure, earthworms, microorganisms and insects is essential to the working of an organic system. Therefore the protection of the soil and environment is fundamental for the organic farmer.

References

A Guide to Agricultural Production and Natural Resources Management. 2005. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, Lilongwe, Malawi.

Altieri, M. 1987. Agro ecology-the scientific basis for alternative agriculture. Intermediate Technology Publications, London.

Balfour, E. 1975. The Living Soil and the Haughley Experiment. Universe Books, New York.

Daberkow, S.G. and K.H. Reichelderfer. 1988. Low-Input Agriculture: Trends, Goals, and Prospects for Input Use. American Journal of Agriculture Economics. 70 (5). Pp 1159-1166.

Grolink . 2004

Howard, A. 1948. An Agriculture Testament. Oxford University Press, London.

Knorr, D. 1982. Sustainable Food Systems. AVI Publishing, Westport. Conn.

Lampkin, N. 1990. Organic Farming. Farming Press, UK.

Lindenbach-Gibson, R and Gray, R. Low-Input Agriculture Gap Analysis. Centre for Agriculture Studies, University of Saskatchewan.

Promotion of Organic Products from Africa http://www.sourcewatch.org/index. 2006.

The Soil Reference and Information Centre. 2007. Netherlands

World Bank. 1982. Ninth Annual Review of Project Performance Audit Results. World Bank Group.

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After a very exhausting day, everyone looks forward to lying in bed. We simply want to lie flat on our backs and rest our tired body as long as we can! Some people just can’t manage it on some nights and that’s why there are certain treatments to aid sleep.

Taking a worthwhile ride to dreamland, at least 8 hours a day, is very essential. It keeps our bodies ready for the challenges that we will face in the coming day. It also restores that lost energy and gives us a feeling of comfort and well being. If you can’t get the sleep you need, a treatment may often become necessary. Having slept a continuous night allows you stay active and to be competent in your work, at your school or in your home. It gives you the confidence to take on any thing that life throws at you.

There are a number of options that can help you in getting that quiet relaxation that you need. For example, there are specially designed pillows that can aid you in your sleeping. There are also many unique positional sleeping aids that help you get that exact, right position in your bed. These can also help to prevent you from snoring at night and make it possible to move around any way you desire.

Music and Aromatherapy are also alternatives in aiding a sound sleep. They have different effects on our bodies that help us to reach a relaxing state. There are many CD’s available which are designed to help with this and the hypnotic sounds will relax your mind, body and emotions. They are perfect to discharge stress and anxiety. Many music cassettes also cater to people who want help with their good sleeping habits. Sound reduction and certain relaxing aromas can really bring maximum comfort and a better nights sleep. These cassettes are often done with a high quality and with professional digital recording equipment.

There are other popular sleep aids as well. First, there is the light sound wave entrainment equipment. These are white noise and sound conditioning machines that offer an array of different sounds inspired by nature. From soothing sounds of ocean, rain, brook or waterfall to tranquil sounds of breezes and birds, these are all perfectly designed to help you fall asleep. For those having problems with snoring, you can try a number of remedies, from nose strips to alarm and even “snoreless” sprays. Face and nose moisturizers are also good for those having difficulty in breathing. They help to reduce the nasal dryness and skin irritations that can sometimes be a problem. Sleeping masks are also an option as a popular sleep aid.

When it comes to sleep, there are certain special factors to consider depending on whether you are younger, older or more active. Any person who works a lot must be extra careful and make sure to get a full and relaxing night of sleep. Age is also another big factor in getting the right sleep because, as we grow older, our body clock experiences many changes. Newborn babies tend to sleep more. They can sleep for approximately 18 hours a day with only a few interruptions. For adults, however, an 8 hour night of sleep is more advisable. This is true whether you are an active adult or not. If for some reason you lack sleep, try doing it at other times of the day. This may help you to get on a better schedule because you may find the time that is best for you. Elderly people require less sleep in the same way that babies require more but everyone needs to pay attention to the amount they get and try to keep it regular. If you decide to take sleep aids, consider these factors first and this will make your determinations more accurate about the amount of sleep you need.

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This is one of the big challenges of our time and history will jude our generation.
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What are your thoughts on the subject?

Violeta Ross, a Bolivian woman with HIV, speaks about the challenges and opportunities to address the HIV epidemic in Latin America and the Caribbean. This video was produced by PAHO on behalf of the United Nations System.

Participate in the conversation by leaving your comment below.